Reviews and Comments

A fascinating book that the traces the evolution of plants and the relationship plants have with animals, via a series of vignettes that look at the life of plants and animals at different periods of time. An appendix of information is also given to provide the scientific background to the vignettes, followed by a list of references.

While fossils of animals (especially dinosaurs) fascinate the public and are the usual 'stars' of palaeontology, plants are the ones that fuel those bodies directly or indirectly. Without plants, there would be no animals, and plants determine what kinds of animals can exist in areas of the world. So it is worthwhile to get an understanding of how plants evolved to understand more of the world that prehistoric animals inhabit.

Our first stop is at the beginning, when the first plants appeared. At some point in time, single-celled organisms in an ocean swallowed cyanobacteria, leading to the first multicellular organisms that could produce food from sunlight. These organisms become more than just a group of cells by differentiating and taking on different roles that benefit the organism as a hold; like cells that hold on fast on to rocks, and helping the organism to reach higher in the water for sunlight. Sex would also arise from differentiation, leading to more variations in subsequent organisms.

Plants now begin to line the shoreline and their growing numbers begin to affect the environment. One of the biggest of these would be the creation of free oxygen molecules, and freeing minerals like calcium from the rocks. They also begin to suck carbon dioxide from the air, resulting in a cooling climate.

Moving on to the Carboniferous, plants now dominate the landscape. The plants now found are not the plants we know, but consist mainly of giant liverworts and ferns that tower metres into the air. Plants achieve this ability to grow tall by repurposing lignin for support (lignin may have originally evolved to protect plants from ultraviolet rays). These plants support an increasingly complex ecosystem made up of giant insects and proto mammals and reptiles, supported by the excess oxygen created by plants. Insects, especially those with an aquatic life cycle, grew big as a response to the extra oxygen, which can be toxic at higher concentrations: a larger body is better able to handle the excess oxygen. Plants grew so rapidly that there wasn't time for dead plants to be decomposed before getting buried, leading to the large coal seams that we find today.

Next, we go to the Triassic, a period of extremes due to the volcanic activity, causing high levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. The climate now has hot seasons and wet ones, causing wildfires and deluges that bury the burnt wood; when fossilised, this wood would become petrified forests found in some areas.

We move to the Jurassic, the era of giant sauropod dinosaurs that need to feed on many plants to fuel their bodies, like ferns, conifers and ginkgos. Sauropods start out small, and they need to grow quickly to avoid being targeted by predators. Their huge bodies also help them digest plants, for sauropods cannot chew and just swallow the plants they eat, along with unlucky small animals.

Now in the Cretaceous period, a new type of plant develops: angiosperms, or flowering plants. They probably grew mainly in watery areas due to competition from ferns and other gymnosperms that are already established.

The Cretaceous period is also one where plants have spread widely, nearly reaching the poles. Large numbers of conifer trees produce resin, which turn into amber when fossilised. These preserve insects or parts of animals that have been trapped within them.

A large asteroid strike that ends the reign of the dinosaurs moves us past the Cretaceous. The destruction does not spare plants. But it gives the angiosperms a chance to spread, and they eventually dominate in the new landscape. The climate after the asteroid strike remains hot, giving rise to large storm that can sweep whole groups of trees out into the oceans. Some of these 'rafts' include stowaways, and this was probably how monkeys made the leap across the ocean from Africa to South America.

The climate now starts to cool, bringing with it seasons and a reduction in rainfall. Forests starts to retreat, opening the ground for grasses and a new environment for animals. Forests gives cover for predators to hide in ambush, but on grassy plains with no cover, predators have to adapt to chase after their prey. One way prey animals can respond is by becoming faster, like horses, which move to grassy plains to take advantage of the new environment.

The author now looks at the relationship between plants and animals by looking at plant pollinators like bats. Some plants also evolved from being general pollination to specialised one, developing plant parts that only some animals can reach as a reward for pollination. This ensures that plants have a higher change of receiving the correct pollen. But if the specialised pollinator goes extinct, the plant is also in danger of becoming extinct, unless it can find a new pollinator to fit the role.

The interesting effects of catnip on cats is also looked at, with a look at a possible behaviour of prehistoric sabre-tooth cats to catnip. Catnip plants developed a chemical to deter animals from eating it. But cats instead find the chemical attractive.

Moving back to grass plains, it also attracts another animal: primates. Some come down from the trees to move on the ground, develop an upright stance. And some would go on to become humans.

Finally, nearing modern times, the author looks at mastodons and mammoths. The changing seasons would also cause season, with fall causing a shedding of leaves. This blanket of fallen leaves would be an aid for small animals to survive the winter, by providing insulation on the ground. A look at parasitic plants that live off fungi and other plants is also given.

A fascinating historical fantasy that mashes together the characters from Peter Pan and Sherlock Holmes. It retells J. M. Barrie's story of Peter Pan from the perspective of the mother, Mary Darling, and gives a modern interpretation to the tale involving slavery, the denigration of native people, the restricted lives of women in the Victorian era, and the rougher side of actually living in Neverland with a Boy that Never Grows Up.

It starts on the night Peter Pan takes her three children to Neverland, and Mary Darling is determined to go there and get her children back. Mary Darling is the niece of John Watson, so he and his companion Sherlock Holmes gets involved in the investigation into the children's kidnapping (as told to the rest of London).

In the first part of the story, we follow Mary Darling as she prepares for the journey, and Holmes' investigation into how the children were kidnapped. We learn more about the background of Mary Darling and the people she knows, and see the first 'collisions' between the magical world of Peter Pan and the logical world of Sherlock Holmes.

The second part of the story covers the separate journeys of Mary Darling, and Holmes and Watson, to where Neverland can be found. As it turns out, Mary made her own journey to Neverland with Peter when she was young, so she is not unprepared to face Peter to get her children back. Watson, meanwhile, has brief encounters with fairies and mermaids and is unsure how to explain such phenomenon to Holmes.

The final third part of the story would involve, of course, Captain Hook, who has a bad relationship with Peter (due to his hand) but who also knows Mary. They would all collide over the rescue of Mary's three children. But what could have been a violent encounter is defused by the timely arrival of the dog, Nana, who is also the children's nanny. As for Holmes, he is left wandering in a case where fairies are real can make people fly, but that can never be part of his logical deductions.

A tale with light touches of magic and a re-imagining of well known fictional characters, now told with modern sensibilities.

A better than average issue of Interzone, with interesting stories by Kate Orman, Alexandra Grunberg and Yukimi Ogawa.

• "I Object" by Kate Orman: an android 'play-thing' of a princess wonders what would happen to it when the princess dies. By tradition, males of the household are buried with the princess. Only, it isn't a he, and may have other ideas about what to do at the end when the princess comes for it.

• "How Heroes are Made" by Alexandra Grunberg: heroes walk out of the gates of a city, hoping to make it pass the horrors that surround it. One especially well trained hero makes the journey, but what happens to her would start the making of a true hero.

• "Nyobo" by Yukimi Ogawa: a 'monster' is created to be a companion of a boy who would grow up to be a magician, able to trap curses which is 'fed' to the monster for disposal. But the magician's latest job is his biggest and he is not sure what to do with it, for a war comes with the curse.

• "Cordiális Through the Eyes of My Mind" by Carlos Norcia: a rather contemporary story about a reporter with embedded recording devices gathering reports and interviews from people tortured by a dictatorial government in a South American country. Then she gets the chance to listen to the history of one sexually abused person who rose up and is leading a revolution.

• "Breach" by E F McAdam: a sentient AI system infiltrates a security system. Its task is to erase the security program and take over the system, but the AI finds itself 'liking' the security program instead.

• "What I Owe" by Rachael Cupp: a story about what a person owns after a future apocalypse has happened.

• "No Shelter Beneath the Searchlights" by Steve Toase: a girl and her mother live next to a mined security barrier, aware that they are under constant scrutiny. Then a security breach gives the girl a chance for freedom, but what she will find is freedom of another kind.

• "Interlopers" by Tamsin Showbrook: a short short story of an attempt to build a house that is being interrupted by the former pottery site that use to be on the land.

• "Vanitas" by R.L. Summerling: a woman unable to leave the house watches in vain as her garden roses are cut by a man. Both may not be who they seem to be.

• "The Toy" by Seán Padraic Birnie: a girl finds herself on an unknown train station, and while wandering around in a town, realises she may not really exist.

• "Out of Orders" by Bogdan Domakha: humanity is dying, and a robot needs to know what to do.

A fascinating book by a naturalist on how to become a naturalist, why you should become one, and why there is a need for naturalists to explore the urban environment, and to bring attention to and to protect the wildlife that can be found in such urban environments. Far from being a sterile, lifeless place fit only for humans, urban places can host a mixture of life, some of it relics of the natural environment that existed before being replaced by urban development, but some are opportunists who have taken advantage of what can be found in urban environments. And naturalists are required to observe and document what can be found in such places, often ignored by governments and misunderstood by the people who live in urban areas.

The book can be divided into several sections. The first one looks at the history of naturalists and their role as observers of the natural environment. As the author shows, early naturalists are simply people who observe and document what can be found around them. Charles Darwin was one, and so were the many people who corresponded with him and each other, sharing what they have seen (and their speculations). Societies formed from groups of naturalist, who launched some of the first scientific journals to document their observations and to share them with the public. With time, such societies become more 'professional', forming scientific organisations that centralised scientific research and distancing themselves from now 'amateur' observers. But with the availability of computers, the internet and open access to journals, it is possible for 'citizen scientists' to contribute, making them, once again, part of the scientific process.

The availability of computers, smartphones and other cheap instruments have made documenting and making scientific observations easier for the public. Image and sound recognition AIs can help to identify wildlife that are seen or heard. Widely available DNA sequencing can be used to quickly discover the variety of wildlife in various environments. Community labs have been set up to offer more ways to scientifically make observations, gather data and present them to authorities.

Besides observations, naturalists are also the foundations of natural collections. While many people collect objects, naturalists are more obsessed and document data about the object (date and original location of the object, for example). These collections (some in the thousands) have been passed on or donated to natural history museums, helping to provide valuable data on wildlife. The author also provides tips on making records on your own collections.

Next, the author looks at what kind of urban environments can host wildlife. Urban man-made caves have many similar features to natural ones and unique organisms have been found in drains and tunnels, many migrating from their natural cave environment via connections, accidental or otherwise. The green mats and microbial films often seen on streets and buildings are unobvious and novel environments. Yet, despite being small, they are often found to have great biodiversity when closely examined. Undiscovered species have also been found in urban parks by naturalist who pay attention to such areas.

To the author, these parks and other isolated urban environments are like islands; each are isolated, and can potentially host a number of species unique to the environment and maybe found nowhere else. This brings up the debate known as "Single Large or Several Small": it is better for the environment and biodiversity if these isolated urban islands are joined together (by adding greenery between parks) so there is mixing (and potentially less overall biodiversity), or is it better to keep them isolated, each hosting different species and increasing biodiversity at the cost of isolation?

The author next looks at the impact road can have on the environment. Roadkill is an aspect that people are usually unaware of, but projects to commemorate roadkills can gather attention and make people realise the scale of the problem. Roads also divide up environments (by preventing animals from crossing them) and alter the landscape. Naturalist can help by observing animals reactions to reads and suggesting alterations to minimise the impact of roads.

Some things humans do can cause animals to be caught in an evolutionary trap. Bottles and cans trap and kill animals by enticing animals to enter, only to be unable to escape and die. This attracts other animals who also get caught in the trap. Shiny surfaces (like cars) attract water loving insects because the surfaces reflect polarised light just like water. Insects evolved to be attracted to polarised light to find water, only to become attracted (and trapped) by shiny surfaces.

Plastics and other materials are now so prevalent that some birds now depend on plastics to build nests that may be better than those built with natural materials. Urban naturalist have documented these and other changes in behaviour in birds and other animals.

The urban environment has also caused evolutionary changes in animals that urban naturist have also documented. Lizards, for example, have evolved toes that are better suited for the smooth surfaces of urban environments. The urban heat island effect has made some animals more tolerant of heat. Spiders are now attracted to urban lights to catch more prey, and the prey are evolving to avoid light.

Changes in behaviour have also been observed. Urban animals are more tolerant of human food and humans in general, becoming bolder and more curious. Mosquitoes now prefer human blood and humans, of course, have evolved to become more immune to diseases usually found in urban areas.

In the final section, the author looks at activism for urban environments. Parks in Istanbul, Turkey, have been defended by communities and activist who decry development that would replace the parks with yet more urban construction. A hill in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, has become a hotspot for firefly observations, leading to calls to preserve the area from development. The author asserts that for such activism to conserve urban spaces to be successful requires commitment, the community, curiosity and courage.

In closing, the author calls for more urban development that is friendly to the environment. He cites the attempts to make artificial green walls that can fail. Yet, nature often succeeds in finding footholds in cities by accident. He suggests making walls, ledges and other places easier for plants, mosses, etc. easier to grow and allow nature to take it course, bringing to life green walls that grow naturally and sustainably.

A fascinating, fact based look at the dinosaur that everybody has heard about: Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex). There has been a lot of hype, mainly due to films, and outdated information about T. rex in the popular media, and this book helps the reader to understand just what we know about this prehistoric tyrant. In the process, we get to know the actual T. rex as revealed by fossils. Alongside the in-depth text about T. rex, we also get marvellous paleoartwork from the author, giving us imaginative glimpses of what it might be like to live in a world where T. rex roam.

What follows is a chapter by chapter look at the book.

Chapter 1 looks at the history of T. rex., starting with the discovery of large fossil bones, eventually described as T. rex. Early museum displays and illustrations in media show T. rex as a large, lumbering reptile. Then came the 'dinosaur renaissance', that argued that dinosaurs were active animals and some, especially T. rex, were mighty predators. This fed the imagination of the general audience and the media, resulting in modern depictions like those seen in the "Jurassic Park / Jurassic World" films. But those media depictions now threaten to 'fossilize' the image of T. rex and dinosaurs in general, while scientific research has continued to updated what we know about them (with features like feathers).

Chapter 2 looks at the family tree of Tyrannosaurs and also other families of dinosaurs and reptiles and how they compare with Tyrannosaurs. In the Triassic, giant relatives of the crocodile were the T. rex of the period. Later on, there were the Spinosaurids and Carcharodontosaurids that may rival the Tyrannosaurs in size and weight. The author looks at the differences and similarities between these families in their features and possible predatory behaviours. A look at various dinosaurs that probably belong to the Tyrannosaurid family is also given. The author does not hide the difficulties in deciding whether there is one or many Tyrannosaurid species, based on the current fossil record.

Chapter 3 look at the anatomy of T. rex, starting with the layout of body based on the fossil bones. The posture, the shape of the head, arms and legs is covered. Many technical terms are featured, but presented in a way that makes it understandable, with a bit of effort by this reader. Instead of being solid, dinosaurs bones are shown to be hollow, with air sacs to make bones lighter while still being strong. A look at the possible skin coverings on various parts of the body is then given, followed by the possibility of T. rex having lips and other kinds of soft tissue. Some speculation on the size of the eyes and how well T. rex can see is presented. Next, the possibility of T. rex having feathers or hair like covering is covered, as well as possible patterns and the colour of the skin.

Chapter 4 looks at the physiology of T. rex. Large animals retain heat, so a look at how T. rex could stay cool is given. There is also discussion on how much does it eat. The growth stages of T. rex is given: its young possibly having a gracile form, followed by a growth spurt during the teen years before turning into the huge adults. Based on the fossils we have, the possible sizes and mass of full grown adults is discussed, including the brain size and possible intelligence of T. rex, and how sensitive could its eyesight, sense of smell, touch, hearing could be. T. rex vocalisations is also covered (think low, loud rumbers, rather than roars), then investigations on T. rex locomotion (juveniles can run, while adults probably walked) and their possible swimming ability. Of course, no discussion would be complete without a look at the bite force of a T. rex and the possible use and movement of the arms (which are actually the length of human arms, but look puny on such a large creature).

Chapter 5 looks at where and when did T. rex lived. A look at other animals (both dinosaurs and non-dinosaurs) that lived at the time is also given. Based on the fossil record, T. rex was found in many areas in Western North America during the last 6 million years of the Cretaceous period. They are found in various environments, ranging from seasonal lowlands and coastal floodplains to volcanic highlands. Interestingly, fossils of other big predatory dinosaur fossils are not found in this period: only those of T. rex. The author presents this as T. rex fitting most of the predatory niches in the environment during its different life stages. The only other big predator found at this time might be the giant pterosaurs. The presence of horned and armoured dinosaurs in this time might indicate that some dinosaurs used them as defence against T. rex, but the more likely explanation (based on the fossil evidence and modern day animals) is that the horns and armour are used for competition for mates, rather than for defence.

Chapter 6 looks at what can be said about how T. rex lived based on the fossil evidence. Locomotion studies show that T. rex could migrate to follow the seasons. But they could also have stayed in one place, feeding on migrating animals, based on studied of their teeth. There is little fossil evidence they form social groups or hunt as a group. Some fossils of T. rex grouped together have been found, but these are most probably accidental groupings or opportunistic groups that formed to hunt. Wounds on T. rex faces indicate they bite each other, possibly during mating or ritualistic combat. The T. rex also actively hunts for prey, and is not a pure scavenger based on its food requirement. We also know how they feed based on T. rex bite marks on fossil bones. They are bite based predators that rip food from bone based on the scrape and puncture marks and location of bites on fossils. Of course, people are interested in the possible copulation behaviour of T. rex, with a possible position shown. The T. rex probably laid hard shelled eggs that are then buried or covered. Their parental behaviour is unknown; babies may lead independent lives from birth. From fossil bones, we know about the kind of injuries, bone pathologies and infections that T. rex suffer from. Lastly, a look at the possible mortality rates are given.

Chapter 7 look at the extinction of T. rex and the non-avian dinosaurs, mainly due to an asteroid that smashed into the earth. An early idea on how they became extinct was through "racial senility" (basically, dinosaurs evolved to become too senile). One idea, based on the lack of fossils found just before the asteroid hit, was that dinosaurs were headed for extinction already. But this, the author says, is due to in a change in the environment that limited the preservation of fossils, since it affects all kinds of fossils, not just of dinosaurs. In closing, the author describes the aftermath of the asteroid hit, and the effect it had on T. rex and life in general.

A good issue of Clarkesworld, with interesting stories by Ng Yi-Sheng, Claire Jia-Wen, A. T. Greenblatt, Matthew Marcus and Rita Chang-Eppig.

• "Emily of Emerald Starship" by Ng Yi-Sheng: an entertaining story based on characters and story from a local popular Singapore play, this one has a high-flying son of a matriarchal star ship giving it all up to be with his lover, who runs a horse stable. He solution to getting out from the system is rather long term.

• "If an Algorithm Can Cast a Shadow" by Claire Jia-Wen: a digital double of the dead son of a mother is delivered to her. What she learns from the double, made up of all the public information on his son, some of which she was not aware of, would make her re-look the reasons for her son's death.

• "In the Shells of Broken Things" by A. T. Greenblatt: a writer travels to a former environmental colony to learn more about the person who used to run it. Along the way, his opinions about her change the more he learns about her.

• "The Eighth Pyramid" by Louis Inglis Hall: on a world with seven pyramids, repurposed by its current inhabitants, one person works to prepare the way for its next inhabitants and another pyramid.

• "Faces of the Antipode" by Matthew Marcus: an ecologist travels to a place where a special kind of tree grows that can help with their environmental problems. He sets out to try to convince the local people there not to cut down the trees; but what he discovers instead is a way of living that may be more helpful to the world in the end.

• "The Last Lunar New Year" by Derek Künsken: far, far, in the future, when humanity has evolved into many different species and the sun is becoming a red giant, one species of humanity makes a special request to the people watching over what is left of the earth. They have an audacious plan to save their themselves, but it would require a balancing of the needs of the many.

• "The Last to Survive" by Rita Chang-Eppig: a downloaded person inhabiting a body returns to an island. This causes a sensation as she was the first person to be downloaded and her fans wonder what she want to do there. After much speculation, the answer has to do with memories and what happens when we start to lose them.

• "Outlier" by R.L. Meza: in a strange lab, where people have been 'transformed' into arachnids, one person is more aware of what is happening to her. Now she wants to escape but to do that, she may have to take advantage of one lab person whom she might consider a friend.